The discovery of kaolinite-rich rocks on Mars by NASA's Perseverance rover has significant implications for the planet's past climate and potential habitability. Kaolinite, a mineral typically formed in warm, wet environments on Earth, suggests that Mars once had conditions far more conducive to life than previously thought12. These high-aluminum rocks, found scattered across Jezero Crater, indicate the presence of long-standing bodies of water and potentially even hot springs in Mars' distant past13.

• The kaolinite-rich rocks are harder than their Earth counterparts, possibly due to unique Martian processes1.

• Over 4,000 of these unusual stones have been identified in Jezero Crater14.

• The presence of spinel in these rocks adds complexity to their formation history23.

• This discovery challenges previous assumptions about Mars' geological history and strengthens the case for ancient Martian life123.

The shape and characteristics of pebbles discovered on Mars by NASA's Curiosity rover have provided valuable insights into the planet's ancient fluvial activity. Researchers have developed a quantitative method to estimate the transport distance of these pebbles based on their shape alone, combining theory, laboratory experiments, and terrestrial field data1. This analysis revealed that the Martian basalt pebbles likely traveled tens of kilometers from their source through bed-load transport on an alluvial fan12.

Key findings include:

• The remarkably rounded pebbles found in Gale Crater suggest sustained water flow on ancient Mars12.

• Researchers estimate the pebbles traveled approximately 30 miles (50 km) from their source3.

• The method provides a new tool for both terrestrial and planetary sedimentology1.

• In contrast to the rounded pebbles, angular clasts found on the surface indicate later emplacement through rock fragmentation processes1.

This evidence of extensive river systems on Mars supports the possibility of past conditions that could have potentially supported life3.

Mars' ancient volcanic activity may have been driven by a process called vertical tectonics, offering new insights into the planet's geological history and early crustal recycling. Unlike Earth's plate tectonics, vertical tectonics on Mars caused the crust to collapse into the mantle, where rocks re-melted and formed magmas with high silica content1. This process explains the diverse volcanism observed on Mars, including:

• Shield volcanoes like Olympus Mons

• Stratovolcanoes and lava domes with elevated silica concentrations

• Volcanoes with distinctly higher silica levels compared to the basaltic composition of most of Mars' surface2

Studying these ancient Martian volcanoes provides a unique opportunity to understand pre-plate tectonic activity on both Mars and early Earth, as Mars' relatively inactive geology has preserved evidence that has been eroded on our planet21.